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- Recognizing that words are symbols for ideas and not the ideas themselves. Recognizing the necessity of
using only words of prior definition, rooted in shared experience, in forming a new definition and in avoiding being misled
by technical jargon.
- Probing for assumption (particularly the implicit, unarticulated assumptions) behind a
line of reasoning.
- Drawing inferences from data, observations, or other evidence and recognizing when firm
inferences cannot be drawn. This subsumes a number of processes such as elementary syllogistic reasoning (e.g., dealing with
basic prepositional "if. . .then" statements), correlational reasoning, recognizing when relevant variables have
or have not been controlled.
- Performing hypothetico-deductive reasoning; that is, given a particular situation,
applying relevant knowledge of principles and constraints and visualizing, in the abstract, the plausible outcomes that might
result from various changes one can imagine to be imposed on the system.
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- Discriminating between inductive and deductive reasoning; that is, being aware when an argument is being made
from the particular to the general or from the general to the particular.
- Testing one's own line of reasoning
and conclusions for internal consistency and thus developing intellectual self-reliance.
- Developing self-consciousness
concerning one's own thinking and reasoning processes.
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Consciously raising the questions "What
do we know. . . ? How do we know. . . ? Why do we accept or believe. . . ? What is the evidence for. . . ?" when studying
some body of material or approaching a problem.
Being clearly and explicitly aware of gaps in available
information. Recognizing when a conclusion is reached or a decision made in absence of complete information and being able
to tolerate the ambiguity and uncertainty. Recognizing when one is taking something on faith without having examined the "How
do we know. . . ? Why do we believe. . . ?" questions.
Discriminating between observation and inference,
between established fact and subsequent conjecture.
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